Volume 440 Number 7081 pp127-254 封面故事：鞭毛对锥体虫的重要性
寻找预防非洲睡眠疾病的疫苗的希望很渺茫，目前用来治疗该疾病的大多数药物都是过时的药物，并不是特别有效，而且难以用在该疾病所流行的撒哈拉以南非洲地区普遍存在的那种发病情况。所以，发现有可能成为药物干预目标的一类新分子，对这一领域的研究工作可能是一大促进。睡眠疾病寄生虫布氏锥体虫（Trypanosoma brucei）是一种原生动物，长有鞭子一样的鞭毛。现在，RNA干涉（RNAi）基因抑制（knock-down）实验结果表明，拥有一个能够正常发挥功能的鞭毛，是该寄生虫在血液中生存所必需的。这说明，这种鞭毛可以成为治疗方法的一个可能的作用点，而蛋白组分析也表明，存在若干种有可能被作为目标的锥体虫特有的鞭毛蛋白。本期封面上所示为，血液中的锥体虫的巨型细胞，它们是由长有有缺陷鞭毛的细胞未能正常分裂而形成的。封面美术：Helen Farr 和 Keith Gull
影响土壤碳平衡的因素
由化学过程诱导的、发生在地表以下的土壤、泥炭地和永久冻土中的巨大碳储量的变化，有可能对气候变化产生重要的正反馈或负反馈。但尽管这方面的研究工作已经做了很多，关于这个问题仍然没有形成共识：即这种变化所造成的反馈既可以是正的，又可以是负的。Eric A. Davidson和 Ivan A. Janssens结合目前关于土壤碳动态的认识，对这一持续的争论做了评述。
伽马射线暴GRB 050904的观测结果
由Swift卫星在去年9月4日探测到的伽马射线暴GRB 050904，是迄今所观测到的最遥远的天体之一。它的z = 6.3的红移值相当于发生在128亿年前的一次爆炸，当时宇宙年龄只有8.90亿年。三个研究小组在本期Nature上报告了他们对GRB 050904余辉中的伽马射线、X-射线、近红外射线和可见光光谱所做的详细观测结果。根据这些结果，天文学家可以描绘出当这个天体的母天体（很可能是一个巨型恒星）爆炸时的情形。这些结果还表明，我们今后看到的伽马射线暴，可被宇宙学家用来探寻早期宇宙中恒星和星系形成的证据，即核合成和再离子化的证据。
将共价碳-碳键断开的简单方法
一次偶然的观察，却发现了做某种本来非常困难的事情的一种简单方法。共价碳-碳键非常牢固，但在一个涉及大分子向一个基质上吸附的简单实验中，研究人员观察到了碳-碳键的自发断裂和被吸附的大分子的自我解体。这一引人注目的现象，是在当刷子一样的大分子对自己进行重组、以使与基质的接触点的数量达到最大的时候出现的。键断裂是在调控被吸附的大分子的二级和三级结构的弱“范德华相互作用力”重新组合、以使它们在局部的强度超过共价键的强度时发生的。该现象对于以表面为作用目标的精细的大分子结构的设计具有重要意义。
低对流层白天亚硝酸浓度也会升高的原因
亚硝酸是羟基的一个主要光化学前体，是低层大气中空气污染物降解的一个关键氧化剂。人们知道，该气体夜间在对流层低处积累，但白天却在几个地点也测出了亚硝酸浓度升高，这个结果是出乎意料的。现在，研究人员提出，用土壤腐殖酸和二氧化氮之间由光诱导的反应来解释该现象。所观察到的亚硝酸形成过程的反应速度表明，这一生产机制可能是低对流层化学体系中的一个重要因素。
生活在海洋极端环境中的细菌
在地中海东部的海水之下，存在地球上能够维持生命的最极端的环境之一。这里，海水漂浮在一个咸度极大的无氧卤水湖（被称为Bannock basin）上。一次新的勘测显示，在3.3公里深度处生活着一个引人注目的微生物群落。这个新发现的群落以细菌为主，而不是以经常在极端环境下占主导地位的古细菌为主，它们所占据的一个小生境是由一个不到3米厚的水层定义的，位于无氧的卤水和含氧的深层海水之间。在这一层内，专门在一个狭窄的咸度范围和氧浓度范围内生存的细菌类型生活在一个分层的微生物绿洲中，靠来自下面卤水的甲烷和来自上面水柱的有机颗粒生存。
控制运动速度的神经细胞
像行走或游泳这样的复杂运动，是由嵌入在脊索中的神经细胞网络产生的。对小鼠所做的一项新的研究工作，首次发现了这样的一个亚组的神经细胞，它们控制运动的速度。将遗传和电生理方法独特地结合起来所做的一项研究工作显示，这些细胞何以能够帮助确定脊索神经细胞的有节奏的活动。研究神经失调问题的科学家，应当对这项工作感兴趣。有趣的是，服务于这一功能的V1神经细胞，是在游泳和行走的脊椎动物之间保留下来的。
青蛙也会装成有毒的样子
对达尔文自然选择理论的最早的验证之一是防卫性模仿，这种欺骗动作还在继续为我们提供关于演化生物学中未知领域的线索。很少有青蛙能像毒青蛙那样引人注目，它们的意图也是如此。它们刺眼的颜色表示自己是有毒的，而“欺骗性”物种则是在没有毒素作为依托的情况下来模仿警告性着色。在厄瓜多尔的亚马逊热带雨林中所做的一项研究，获得了令人吃惊的发现：可以食用的青蛙会模仿附近两种有毒青蛙中毒性较小的一种。为什么要模仿威力不太强的武器呢？研究人员通过学习实验发现了答案：答案在于回避心理学。毒性极强时，会使捕食者回避与有毒目标稍微有点相像的东西，而毒性不是特别强时，捕食者的回避会变得有针对性。所以，模仿毒性不是特别强的青蛙，可以获得100%的保护，它们会被学习区分毒性不同的青蛙的捕食者回避。
Inflammasome和Cryopyrin与先天免疫系统
Inflammasome是一组复杂的蛋白质，参与先天免疫系统的激发，从演化上来讲是大多数多细胞动物一个古老的抗菌防卫体系。当被激发时，Inflammasome会启动一系列事件，导致包括白介素在内的活性分子的生成。本期Nature上三篇论文报告了内生危险信号和细菌成分的发现，它们激发含有Inflammasome的Cryopyrin（也被称为NALP3）。Mariathasan等人发现，Cryopyrin响应于细菌毒素和ATP而激发Inflammasome。Kanneganti等人发现，Cryopyrin是被细菌RNA和被免疫响应修饰因子R837 和 R848激发的。Martinon等人发现，与痛风有关的尿酸晶体有类似效应。总而言之，这些结果表明，Cryopyrin在主体抗菌防卫体系中扮演非常重要的角色，可起细胞压力传感器的作用。另外，这项工作还为了解自免疫失调的机制提供了线索。研究发现，自免疫失调与先天免疫系统中的异常有关。
基因表达的演化速度
关于人类与猿类染色体之间相似性的文献已经很多，但除了基因序列外，一个基因组在肌肉和血液中的表达还取决于基因表达模式。现在，利用一个多物种cDNA阵列来将人类基因表达模式与黑猩猩、猩猩和恒河猴的基因表达模式进行对比，就有可能识别出发生快速和慢速基因表达演化的不同基因来。一些基因在这些物种所经历的7000万年的演化过程中一直在以不变的水平表达，其中包括与肝癌有关的基因，这说明，在表达水平不变的基因中也许能找到其他疾病候选基因。与这些稳定的基因相比，在人类中，在被认为最有可能导致机体水平上发生分异的基因类别上、即转录因子基因上所发生的积极选择的数量之多不成比例。
ContentsEditorials
Refocusing NASA's vision p127
Ballooning costs for NASA's next space telescope are putting other worthwhile projects at risk — and carry lessons for future mission planning.
doi:10.1038/440127a
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A warm welcome p128
Scientists should embrace a move by evangelicals to join the debate on climate change.
doi:10.1038/440128a
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Slow train coming p128
Reform of Ukraine's archaic research system is needed sooner rather than later.
doi:10.1038/440128b
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Top of pageResearch Highlights
Research highlights p130
doi:10.1038/440130a
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Top of pageNews
Ukraine scientists grow impatient for change p132
Researchers still waiting for a dividend from the 'orange revolution'.
Quirin Schiermeier
doi:10.1038/440132a
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Evidence for bubble fusion called into question p132
Failure to replicate results causes heated debate.
Eugenie Samuel Reich
doi:10.1038/440132b
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Sidelines p133
doi:10.1038/440133a
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Tempers blaze over artistic integrity p134
Accusations fly as spat over Renaissance painting technique gets personal.
Rex Dalton
doi:10.1038/440134a
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Can cats spread avian flu? p135
Fears grow over felines carrying H5N1 virus.
Declan Butler
doi:10.1038/440135a
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Church joins crusade over climate change p136
Evangelical leaders have called on the United States to step up its efforts to control greenhouse-gas emissions. But can they force action where others have failed, asks Amanda Haag.
doi:10.1038/440136a
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Japan anticipates green light for nuclear plants p138
Fuel recycling programme edges closer to reality.
Ichiko Fuyuno
doi:10.1038/440138a
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News in brief p139
doi:10.1038/440139a
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Top of pageNews Features
US astronomy: Is the next big thing too big? p140
The cost of the James Webb Space Telescope could cripple US astronomy. Tony Reichhardt takes a closer look.
doi:10.1038/440140a
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Ecology: Caught between shores p144
Ecologists paid by industry to assess the effects of businesses on the environment are often accused of selling their souls. But isn't scientific expertise exactly what is needed? Michael Hopkin investigates.
doi:10.1038/440144a
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Top of pageBusiness
Ringing the changes at Bell Labs p146
Lucent hopes that a leader with an entrepreneurial bent will revive the legendary Bell Laboratories. Geoff Brumfiel reports.
doi:10.1038/440146a
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In Brief p147
doi:10.1038/440147a
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Market Watch p147
Colin Macilwain
doi:10.1038/440147b
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Top of pageCorrespondence
Hasty energy review risks failing to win public trust p148
James Tansey, David Gee, Melissa Leach, Jerome Ravetz, Alister Scott, Andrew Stirling, Bronislaw Szerszynski and Tom Wakeford
doi:10.1038/440148a
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Silence isn't necessarily an admission of guilt p148
Rory P. Wilson
doi:10.1038/440148b
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GOOS can help to keep an eagle eye on the oceans p148
Keith Alverson
doi:10.1038/440148c
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Giants of physics found white-dwarf mass limits p148
Eric Blackman
doi:10.1038/440148d
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Top of pageBooks and Arts
The life of a sage p149
J. D. Bernal was a multifaceted crystallographer who laid the foundations of molecular biology.
Kenneth C. Holmes reviews J. D. Bernal: The Sage of Science by Andrew Brown
doi:10.1038/440149a
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In search of Prometheus p150
James Bradley reviews Bioethics and the New Embryology: Springboards for Debate by Scott F. Gilbert, Anna L. Tyler and Emily J. Zackin
doi:10.1038/440150a
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Tall tales from the deep p151
Victor Smetacek reviews Singing Whales, Flying Squid and Swimming Cucumbers: The Discovery of Marine Life by Richard Ellis
doi:10.1038/440151a
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Science in culture: Seeing the light p152
Dan Flavin experimented with fluorescent tubes to create his art.
Martin Kemp
doi:10.1038/440152a
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Top of pageNews and Views
Cell biology: When the tail wags the dog p153
Flagella are whip-like structures that power the movement of certain cells. Analysis of a single-cell parasite, the African trypanosome, reveals that flagella are also essential for viability in this organism.
Scott M. Landfear
doi:10.1038/440153a
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Astrophysics: Ancient blast comes to light p154
Light from the oldest and farthest stellar explosion yet seen was emitted when the Universe was a mere infant. It provides a close-up view of how and when stars formed, and how they affect the primordial gas around them.
Enrico Ramirez-Ruiz
doi:10.1038/440154a
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50 & 100 years ago p155
doi:10.1038/440155a
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Biological chemistry: Catalytic competition for cells p156
Ways of evolving proteins, and assessing the vast numbers of variants needed to identify those with novel enzymatic activity, are themselves evolving. Oil droplets containing basic cell machinery provide a promising approach.
Virginia W. Cornish
doi:10.1038/440156a
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Molecular physics: Recombination cool and fast p157
Molecular physicists and astrophysicists alike would like to know how fast the H3+ molecular ion recombines with electrons. Fast, seems to be the answer — with an awkward consequence for the astrophysicists.
Benjamin J. McCall
doi:10.1038/440157a
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Neurobiology: How fast can you go? p158
Rhythmic activities such as walking need tight coordination. In mice, pace is tweaked by a specific set of spinal-cord neurons that, surprisingly, make the animals walk faster by inhibiting the underlying circuit.
Laura N. Borodinsky
doi:10.1038/440158a
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Bioengineering: Diagnosis on disc p159
Highly complex immunoassays that identify and quantify many different antigens simultaneously need high-resolution imaging capability. A simple, low-cost technique could be music to our ears.
Frances S. Ligler and Jeffrey S. Erickson
doi:10.1038/440159a
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Physical Chemistry: Stressed molecules break down p160
Tough carbon–carbon bonds can snap in certain large molecules just because the two sides of the molecule cannot agree on which way to go during adsorption. Heresy? The view through the microscope suggests otherwise.
Steve Granick and Sung Chul Bae
doi:10.1038/440160a
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Comparative genomics: Difference of expression p161
Evolutionary studies tend to focus on alterations in proteins. But evolutionary change can often occur through modified gene expression, a process that is now under investigation with species-specific microarrays.
Rasmus Nielsen
doi:10.1038/440161a
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Obituary: Richard Dalitz (1925–2006) p162
Particle physicist and creator of the Dalitz plot.
Graham Ross
doi:10.1038/440162a
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Top of pageBrief Communications
Molecular machines: Nanomotor rotates microscale objects p163
A molecular motor in a liquid-crystal film uses light to turn items thousands of times larger than itself.
Rienk Eelkema, Michael M. Pollard, Javier Vicario, Nathalie Katsonis, Blanca Serrano Ramon, Cees W. M. Bastiaansen, Dirk J. Broer and Ben L. Feringa
doi:10.1038/440163a
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Gamma-ray bursts: Huge explosion in the early Universe p164
G. Cusumano, V. Mangano, G. Chincarini, A. Panaitescu, D. N. Burrows, V. La Parola, T. Sakamoto, S. Campana, T. Mineo, G. Tagliaferri, L. Angelini, S. D. Barthelemy, A. P. Beardmore, P. T. Boyd, L. R. Cominsky, C. Gronwall, E. E. Fenimore, N. Gehrels, P. Giommi, M. Goad, K. Hurley, J. A. Kennea, K. O. Mason, F. Marshall, P. Mészáros, J. A. Nousek, J. P. Osborne, D. M. Palmer, P. W. A. Roming, A. Wells, N. E. White and B. Zhang
doi:10.1038/440164a
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Corrigendum p164
doi:10.1038/440164b
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Top of pageBrief Communications Arising
Molecular genetics: DNA analysis of a putative dog clone pE1
Heidi G. Parker, Leonid Kruglyak and Elaine A. Ostrander
doi:10.1038/nature04685
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Molecular genetics: Verification that Snuppy is a clone pE2
Seoul National University Investigation Committee, Jung Bin Lee and Chankyu Park
doi:10.1038/nature04686
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Top of pageReview
Temperature sensitivity of soil carbon decomposition and feedbacks to climate change p165
Eric A. Davidson and Ivan A. Janssens
doi:10.1038/nature04514
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Top of pageArticle
Stochastic spineless expression creates the retinal mosaic for colour vision p174
Mathias F. Wernet, Esteban O. Mazzoni, Arzu Çelik, Dianne M. Duncan, Ian Duncan and Claude Desplan
doi:10.1038/nature04615
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Top of pageLetters
A photometric redshift of z = 6.39 0.12 for GRB 050904 p181
J. B. Haislip, M. C. Nysewander, D. E. Reichart, A. Levan, N. Tanvir, S. B. Cenko, D. B. Fox, P. A. Price, A. J. Castro-Tirado, J. Gorosabel, C. R. Evans, E. Figueredo, C. L. MacLeod, J. R. Kirschbrown, M. Jelinek, S. Guziy, A. de Ugarte Postigo, E. S. Cypriano, A. LaCluyze, J. Graham, R. Priddey, R. Chapman, J. Rhoads, A. S. Fruchter, D. Q. Lamb, C. Kouveliotou, R. A. M. J. Wijers, M. B. Bayliss, B. P. Schmidt, A. M. Soderberg, S. R. Kulkarni, F. A. Harrison, D. S. Moon, A. Gal-Yam, M. M. Kasliwal, R. Hudec, S. Vitek, P. Kubanek, J. A. Crain, A. C. Foster, J. C. Clemens, J. W. Bartelme, R. Canterna, D. H. Hartmann, A. A. Henden, S. Klose, H.-S. Park, G. G. Williams, E. Rol, P. O'Brien, D. Bersier, F. Prada, S. Pizarro, D. Maturana, P. Ugarte, A. Alvarez, A. J. M. Fernandez, M. J. Jarvis, M. Moles, E. Alfaro, K. M. Ivarsen, N. D. Kumar, C. E. Mack, C. M. Zdarowicz, N. Gehrels, S. Barthelmy and D. N. Burrows
doi:10.1038/nature04552
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An optical spectrum of the afterglow of a -ray burst at a redshift of z = 6.295 p184
N. Kawai, G. Kosugi, K. Aoki, T. Yamada, T. Totani, K. Ohta, M. Iye, T. Hattori, W. Aoki, H. Furusawa, K. Hurley, K. S. Kawabata, N. Kobayashi, Y. Komiyama, Y. Mizumoto, K. Nomoto, J. Noumaru, R. Ogasawara, R. Sato, K. Sekiguchi, Y. Shirasaki, M. Suzuki, T. Takata, T. Tamagawa, H. Terada, J. Watanabe, Y. Yatsu and A. Yoshida
doi:10.1038/nature04498
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Quasiparticle breakdown in a quantum spin liquid p187
Matthew B. Stone, Igor A. Zaliznyak, Tao Hong, Collin L. Broholm and Daniel H. Reich
doi:10.1038/nature04593
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Adsorption-induced scission of carbon–carbon bonds p191
Sergei S. Sheiko, Frank C. Sun, Adrian Randall, David Shirvanyants, Michael Rubinstein, Hyung-il Lee and Krzysztof Matyjaszewski
doi:10.1038/nature04576
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Photosensitized reduction of nitrogen dioxide on humic acid as a source of nitrous acid p195
Konrad Stemmler, Markus Ammann, Chantal Donders, Jörg Kleffmann and Christian George
doi:10.1038/nature04603
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Cryptic striations in the upper mantle revealed by hafnium isotopes in southeast Indian ridge basalts p199
D. W. Graham, J. Blichert-Toft, C. J. Russo, K. H. Rubin and F. Albarède
doi:10.1038/nature04582
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Stratified prokaryote network in the oxic–anoxic transition of a deep-sea halocline p203
Daniele Daffonchio, Sara Borin, Tullio Brusa, Lorenzo Brusetti, Paul W. J. J. van der Wielen, Henk Bolhuis, Michail M. Yakimov, Giuseppe D'Auria, Laura Giuliano, Danielle Marty, Christian Tamburini, Terry J. McGenity, John E. Hallsworth, Andrea M. Sass, Kenneth N. Timmis, Anastasios Tselepides, Gert J. de Lange, Andreas Hübner, John Thomson, Soterios P. Varnavas, Francesco Gasparoni, Hans W. Gerber, Elisa Malinverno, Cesare Corselli and The Biodeep Scientific Party
doi:10.1038/nature04418
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Predator learning favours mimicry of a less-toxic model in poison frogs p208
Catherine R. Darst and Molly E. Cummings
doi:10.1038/nature04297
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Global tests of biodiversity concordance and the importance of endemism p212
John F. Lamoreux, John C. Morrison, Taylor H. Ricketts, David M. Olson, Eric Dinerstein, Meghan W. McKnight and Herman H. Shugart
doi:10.1038/nature04291
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V1 spinal neurons regulate the speed of vertebrate locomotor outputs p215
Simon Gosgnach, Guillermo M. Lanuza, Simon J. B. Butt, Harald Saueressig, Ying Zhang, Tomoko Velasquez, Dieter Riethmacher, Edward M. Callaway, Ole Kiehn and Martyn Goulding
doi:10.1038/nature04545
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ClC-7 requires Ostm1 as a -subunit to support bone resorption and lysosomal function p220
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doi:10.1038/nature04535
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Flagellar motility is required for the viability of the bloodstream trypanosome p224
Richard Broadhead, Helen R. Dawe, Helen Farr, Samantha Griffiths, Sarah R. Hart, Neil Portman, Michael K. Shaw, Michael L. Ginger, Simon J. Gaskell, Paul G. McKean and Keith Gull
doi:10.1038/nature04541
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Cryopyrin activates the inflammasome in response to toxins and ATP p228
Sanjeev Mariathasan, David S. Weiss, Kim Newton, Jacqueline McBride, Karen O'Rourke, Meron Roose-Girma, Wyne P. Lee, Yvette Weinrauch, Denise M. Monack and Vishva M. Dixit
doi:10.1038/nature04515
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Bacterial RNA and small antiviral compounds activate caspase-1 through cryopyrin/Nalp3 p233
Thirumala-Devi Kanneganti, Nesrin Özören, Mathilde Body-Malapel, Amal Amer, Jong-Hwan Park, Luigi Franchi, Joel Whitfield, Winfried Barchet, Marco Colonna, Peter Vandenabeele, John Bertin, Anthony Coyle, Ethan P. Grant, Shizuo Akira and Gabriel Núñez
doi:10.1038/nature04517
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Gout-associated uric acid crystals activate the NALP3 inflammasome p237
Fabio Martinon, Virginie Pétrilli, Annick Mayor, Aubry Tardivel and Jürg Tschopp
doi:10.1038/nature04516
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Expression profiling in primates reveals a rapid evolution of human transcription factors p242
Yoav Gilad, Alicia Oshlack, Gordon K. Smyth, Terence P. Speed and Kevin P. White
doi:10.1038/nature04559
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Nanospring behaviour of ankyrin repeats p246
Gwangrog Lee, Khadar Abdi, Yong Jiang, Peter Michaely, Vann Bennett and Piotr E. Marszalek
doi:10.1038/nature04437
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Top of pageNaturejobs
Prospect
Selling ourselves p251
Practice makes pitch perfect
Paul Smaglik
doi:10.1038/nj7081-251a
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Career Views
Suzanne Fortier, president, Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada p252
After a career in university administration, chemist now leads one of Canada's main research funding agencies.
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doi:10.1038/nj7081-252a
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doi:10.1038/nj7081-252b
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doi:10.1038/nj7081-252c
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Top of pageFutures
The punishment fits the crime p254
Everything's going to be all right.
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doi:10.1038/440254a
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